What It All Means To Me

Our long-term memory contains our semantic memory that contains our schemas and scripts. It is during the encoding process that we determine what we pay attention to, and at what level we will process that information. The levels of processing range from shallow to deep. I, the teacher, will determine through the type of questioning, or the activity I choose as to what level of processing they will use. For example, if I ask them to look at a word or listen to a lecture, they will process at a shallow level and have little recall. Whereas if I ask them questions about the words meaning, use it in a sentence, give me a summary of the lecture, or relate this information to the previous section they will use deep levels of processing and increase their recall. The self-reference effect reinforces why I have students make personal connections. Using the self as a reference encourages deep levels of processing and hence greater recall. This is because the self is viewed as a rich set of cues. Additionally, I have learned why students want to take make-up tests in the class as opposed the library or the hallway, even though I think it would be distracting, this is due the encoding specificity principle. This is simply that the encoding context should be similar to the retrieval context. I now understand why students have difficulty on tests. This is because I do not help them encode the information in the format that I intend to test them, I have changed this for the upcoming year. Traditionally, I would give students a list of words to learn the meaning of and how to spell. I would then test them by giving them the definition and they would have to come up with the word, now I will use recall teaching for recall tests (essays, short answer) and I will use recognition teaching for recognition tests ( multiple choice. In addition, I will now have the students learn material using the principles of encoding specificity and the self-reference effect principles and I will help them to develop appropriate learning strategies.
The long-term memory contains our semantic memory and this is our general knowledge. In order for semantic memory to grow, I have to engage my students’ (and my own) existing schemas. I can do this by using graphic organizers, activating prior knowledge through questioning, guest speakers, movies, and etcetera. As a teacher, I need to teach children how to access their current schema and how to increase their knowledge with effective study strategies.
A group of scripts I teach my students is the classroom scripts. That is how to enter the room, where to put their things, what to do with homework, move their clip for lunch choice, how to get help, how to line up, what to expect each day, and so forth. Most of the students come with a predetermined script based on previous experiences; it is my job to ensure they match mine.
In conclusion, the immense amount of information and the application of, both personally and professionally, that I have learned in this class is immense. I had not thought of why I do many of the things I do, but now I have a clearer understanding of the cognitive psychology theory behind many of my decisions. Now when I am asked why I do something, I can turn to my book, or several of the many articles I have, and show it has been proven effective through research. In a time when teachers are continuously under fire and being bombarded with ineffective teaching methods it is crucial that I can back my teaching techniques up with research.

The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach

Parallel Distributed Processing Approach states that cognitive processing is based on parallel operations in which all attributes are considered at the same time. Each concept is represented as a node and is connected to other nodes. Each time a network connection is made between nodes it strengthens and learning takes places.
Let us look at an example
Using the following clues, guess what is being described
A. It has doors
B. It has windows
C. It has rooms
D. It is on wheels
You were probably thinking about a house; until you came to the sentence, it has wheels. Now you are thinking about either a mobile home or a travel trailer.
Let us look at another example
A. It is green
B. It grows on a vine
C. It is a vegetable
D. It can be string, green, or wax
You should have guessed bean. However, you might have thought about a cucumber until you came to the fourth clue.
Advantages of the Parallel Distributed Processing Approach
1. Explains how our memory helps us when some of the information is missing
2. We make spontaneous generalizations through inferences about general information. Spontaneous generalizations account for some of memory errors and can partially explain stereotyping.
3. Processing is a distributed activity across several locations
4. A network contains nodes which are connected to many other links
5. Connections are weighted. Connection weights determine how much activation a unit can passes to another unit and each can be open at different levels
6. Activation can be either positive or negative
7. Each avtivation changes the stength of connections among related units
8. Graceful degradation is the brain's ability to provide partial memory and explains tip of the tongue phenomenon
Reference
Matlin, M.W. (2005), Cognition (6th ed.) Wiley and Sons
Additonal information obtained from this site

The Exemplar Approach

According to Wisniewski for each concept, we first learn a few specific examples called an exemplar. We then classify each new stimulus based on how closely it resembles the specific examples.
• For example for the concept pet, I think of dog, cat, and bird. Each of these items are my exemplars for the my concept of pet.


Reference
Matlin, M.W. (2005), Cognition (6th ed.) Wiley and Sons

The Prototype Approach

Eleanor Rosch proposed The Prototype Approach which states that we organize our categories based on a prototype, which is an idealized item that is the typical representative of the category. An example of this would be a green bean is my prototype for the category vegetable.
Inclusion into a category is based on the comparison of the item to the prototype.
1. Example: the prototype I have for a table is it is made of wood, it has four legs, the top is smooth and flat, and its shape is a square. Therefore I would include all square, flat topped, four legged, and wooden pieces of furniture into my category of table.
Levels of categorization
• Superordinate-level categories are our more general categories. For example: appliance, lumber, vehicle.
• Basic-level categories are a little more specific. They identify objects. For example: stove, plywood, and car. Rosch and colleagues asked people to look at pictures and identify the objects. They found that people used the basic level category to identify the objects. In other words, they identified objects by their common name. They also found that the basic level name is given faster than the subordinate level name.
Basic-level names induce the priming effect. This means that you will respond faster to an item if a similar item preceded it.
• Subordinate-level categories are more specific. For example: wood stove, outdoor treated plywood, sports car.
2. Let me show you a few another example.
• Superordinate-level category-meat
• Basic-level category-beef
• Subordinate-level category-ground beef(hamburger)
3. Now you try using these Superordinate-level categories:
• Clothing
• Furniture
• Home
Reference:
Matlin, M.W. (2005),Cognition (6th ed.) Wiley and Sons

The Feature Comparison Model

1. Smith and his coauthors (1974) suggest that the characteristics used in this model are either Defining Characteristics (the attributes that are necessary for the meaning of the item) or Characteristic Features (the attributes that are descriptive but not essential to the item).
2. Uses inferences to make decisions
3. Sentence Verification Technique- used to explore this model
4. Typicality Effect-a decision as to whether or not an example belongs to a category is faster if the item is typical member rather than an atypical member
The Feature Comparison Model Based on Smith, 1978

The Sentence Verification Technique Demonstration using the Decision Process as described by Smith and his coauthors
1. Present a simple sentence: An artichoke is a green vegetable
2. In the first stage of the decision process you look at the subject and the predicate terms to determine similarity
3. Three decisions are possible at this stage: 1. there is low similarity, and you reply false, 2. there is there is high similarity, and you reply true, or 3. there is intermediate similarity and you proceed to stage 2.
4. In the case of an artichoke is a green vegetable we can determine a high level of similarity between the subject and predicate terms and therefore say true.
5. However, in the case of intermediate similarity we must then consider the defining characteristics.
6. To demonstrate intermediate similarity, let us use the sentence; a blog is like a chat room discussion. In stage 1 we compare blogs to chat rooms and determine intermediate similarity. That is they both are forms of discussions. However, a blog does not give immediate feedback, whereas a chat room does. We then proceed to stage 2 comparison, realize that they are both forms of discussion, and are therefore a match and the statement is true.
Reference
Matlin, M.W. (2005),Cognition (6th ed.) Wiley and Sons

Semantic Memory

Semantic Memory
• Contains our encyclopedic knowledge (facts), language knowledge, and conceptual knowledge
• Influences our cognitive activities
• Required to read texts, find locations, solve problems, and in decision making
• Lets us code the objects that we encounter
• Allows inferences to be made based on decisions as to whether or not an item belongs to a category
Essential Component
Categories, according to research, (Schwarz, 1995) - are groups of information that belong together that helps us make sense of our world. Within each category is a concept as defined by Wisniewski in his 2002 research as representative of each category.
Let us look at a few examples to help clarify this:
Each of us has a variety of objects or images that define the category of an automobile. All of the objects can be called cars.
I have a variety of images that define my category of a home. All of these objects could be called a house.
There are 4 approaches to semantic memory.
1. The Feature Comparison Model: concepts are stored in our memory using a list of necessary features.
2. The Prototype Approach:each category is organized using the most idealistic item for that category.
3. The Exemplar Approach:Specific examples of a concept are learned first and then each new stimuli is categorized acording to how closely it resembles the specific examples.
4. Network Models: uses the interconnections of items.
Reference
Matlin, M.W. (2005),Cognition (6th ed.) Wiley and Sons

The Retrieval Process

The retrieval process reflects how accurately you can recall information that is stored or encoded in your long-term memory.
There are two types of retrieval tasks: implicit and explicit.
Implicit Memory Tasks seem unrelated to previously learned material. Example:When you dial your parents' phone number. We tend not to think about it, we just pick up the phone and dial. Another example would be when we see the Golden Arches we do not have to look at the sign to know it is McDonald's. When we use implicit memory, we are not making a conscious effort to recall past experiences.
Repetition Priming Task(Toth, 2000) states recent exposure to information increases the likelihood the information will be recalled later when given a cue.
For Example:When teachers give students a list of words to learn (animal), they give them examples(dog, cat, tiger, elelphant) to go with each word. Later when they test the students ability to recall the words they give them the examples and ask for the word.
Dissociation (Neath, 1998)occurs when a variable has no effect or one kind of effect on test A and no effect or an opposite effect on test B.
Research has indicated that people generally know more on implicit memory tasks than can be shown on recall tasks.
Explicit Memory TasksConscious of your memory being tested
Requires the deliberate recall of material Example:When we try to dial a phone number that we just learned. At first, we have to think about it. Another example is when we try to recall how to spell a newly learned vocabulary word.
Consist of specific memories regarding specific events that happened at specific times and places in the external world.
Two Types of Memory Tests
Recall:individual is producing the information that was learned at an earlier time. Example-essay tests
Recognition:individual is recognizing information that was learned at an earlier time. Example-multiple choice tests
Reference
Matlin, M.W. (2005),Cognition (6th ed.) Wiley and Sons

Emotion, Mood, and the Encoding Process

I am now going to explore how our emotions, mood, and memory interact during the encoding process.
Mood and emotion are terms often used interchangeably. However, emotion is defined as a reaction to a specific stimulus and mood is defined as more of a long-lasting general experience.
Three Ways in Which Mood and Emotion Affect the Encoding Process
1. In most cases, we remember pleasant stimuli more accurately than other stimuli. This is known as the Pollyanna Principle which states that pleasant stimuli is processed more efficiently and accurately than less pleasant stimuli. The Pollyanna Principle holds true for phenomenon in perception, language, and decision-making.
Example: Think about your favorite vacation. Recall the details of this vacation. Now think about your least favorite vacation. Try to recall the as many details as you can. B. The intensity level of the stimuli’s emotional tone is also an important factor.
C. Another factor is that the visual imagery for pleasant stimuli tends to be more vivid than for unpleasant stimuli.
D. Memory accuracy is affected by emotions.
For example, when we are angry our memory is less accurate.
E. Recall is faster for pleasant stimuli.
For example, make a list of 10 foods. Now number those foods, 1-10, in order from favorite to least favorite. You may be surprised to find that your favorite foods are at the top of the list. Now, make a list of your least favorite foods. I found the task of listing my favorite foods easier. I also discovered that I had listed my top ten favorite foods almost in the exact order of favoritism.
2. In most cases, we recall material more accurately if our current mood matches the emotional nature of the material. This is referred to mood congruence.
For example, we should remember pleasant stimuli better if we are in a pleasant mood and vice versa. That is we should remember unpleasant stimuli better if we are in an unpleasant mood.
3. In most cases, we recall material more accurately if our mood during encoding matches our mood during retrieval. This is referred to as mood dependent
References:
Matlin, M.W. (2005),Cognition (6th ed.) Wiley and Sons

Long-Term Memory-Encoding

Encoding refers to the initial acquisition of information. It is during this process that information enters our memories.
The Levels of Processing Approach predicts a high level of recall when we process information for meaning, make associations, create images, form a relationship to previous experiences, and when we analyze the information. In addition, when we look for the distinctiveness (how different is it) and we make elaborations (processing in terms of meaning and interrelated concepts) we use a deeper level of processing. Whereas if we only process information on sound and characteristics we are using shallow processing.
Levels of Processing and The Self-Reference Effect
Types of instructions(process for meaning or only characteristics of)affect the level of processing, either deep or shallow processing, that takes place and elaboration increases the likelihood of recall.
Our cognitive system handles positive occurrences better than negative occurrences. that is we are more likely to remember something if we can relate it to ourself.
Visualizing and imagining yourself using the object generates greater recall of the word related to the object.
Self-reference instructions encourage us to make connections to ourselves
The self acts as strong set of cues
Self-reference instructions encourage us to evaluate how our traits relate to one another
We tend to rehearse material more frequently when it is related to us
Encoding Specificity Principle states that recall is better if the encoding and retrieval contexts are similar. An example of this is when we teach children in one room, they should be tested in the same room. A personal example of this is when I study, I try to do it at the library which is similar to a classrooom.
Type of memory tasks
Recall is when we produce an item that was learned earlier and recognition is when we identify items that have been learned earlier. An example of recall is an essay test. An example of recognition is a multiple choice test (your drivers license test).
Encoding specificity effect is more likely to occur when tasks test recall, use real life events, and study events that happened long ago.


References
Another reference
Matlin, M.W. (2005),Cognition (6th ed.) Wiley and Sons
Additional Reference I obtained information

Overview Of Long-Term Memory Chart

Now that you have had the chance to read about long-term memory, semantic memory, and schemas and scripts, and to look at some of the hyperlinks I included, I will now try to present, evaluate and show you how these theories are interrelated.
(Wish me luck and please provide me feedback on how well I am doing. I will take your comments serious and update my blog accordingly.)
First, let us have an overview of where I will be taking you:

1. First, I will discuss the encoding process, specifically, the Levels of Processing Approach and the Self-Reference Effect.
2. Next, I will present the Encoding Specificity Principle.
3. From here, I will discuss the Retrieval process as related to implicit and explicit memory tasks.
4. I will include a discussion of how emotions and mood influence our memory.
5. The discussion will then turn to semantic memory and the four approaches to semantic memory.
6. At this point, I will then discuss schemas and scripts and their influence on memory.
7. Finally, I will relate personal examples to demonstrate my understanding of the theories and how they influence my choices as a teacher.
Again, I hope to include more pictures and hyperlinks as I go along.

Schemas and Scripts

Schema, schemas, and schemata are all terms that refer to the generalized information that our memories have about familiar places, situations, categories of objects, and events.
Schemas are heuristics or our general rules.
We use our schemas to guide our understanding of new examples that we encounter and they allow us to make predictions of our expectations in new situations.
One common type of schema is a script (a well-constructed sequence of events that is associated with a familiar activity).
Example:Think about the first day of a new class. What do you expect to happen?
My script tells me that I will look for a familiar face to sit by, the professor will introduce themself, go over the syllabus, answer questions and then possibly start on the first chapter, give an assignment, and/or dismiss us early.
Schemas play an important role on these five components of memory
1. During the selection of material to be remembered;
2. In boundary extension (when you store a scene in memory);
3. During abstraction (when you store the meaning, but not the specific details of the material);
4. During interpretation (when you make inferences about the material); and
5. During integration (when you form a single memory representation of the material).
Reference:
Matlin, M.W. (2005),Cognition (6th ed.) Wiley and Sons
Additional information was obtained from these sites:
Schemas
Schema Theory

Semantic Memory

Semantic memory is our organized information and our knowledge about the world, without any reference as to how that information is collected. It allows us to make sense of the objects that we encounter.

Most of our cognitive activities (reading, determining locations, problem solving and decision-making) are influenced by our semantic memory.

Two essential components of semantic memory:
1. Category is a class of objects that belong together.
Example: Cats
2. Concept is a mental representation of a category.
Example: Siamese cat
Reference:
Semantic Memory Resource
Matlin, M.W. (2005),Cognition (6th ed.) Wiley and Sons(pp.248-249)

Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory has a large capacity, contains our memories for experiences and the information that we have gathered and are gathering over our lifetime. Long-term memory information is stored based on meaning and the importance of the information. Long-term memory subdivisions are episodic memory (memory for events that happen to you and allow you to travel back in time in order to re-experience your memories), semantic memory (your organized knowledge of the world, words and information), and procedural memory (knowledge about how to do things). In addition, it has three aspects. They are encoding (the initial gathering of information), retrieval (the locating stored information and accessing that information), and finally autobiographical information (that is the information that pertains to ourselves).
Try this to test your memory of an object we use everyday but tend to ignore.
Reference:
Matlin, M.W.(2005). Cognition (6th edition). John Wiley and Sons